Dissection, media portrayals, and reaction: Black bodies and medical education in nineteenth-century newspapers.

Throughout the nineteenth century, medical schools in both the Northern and Southern regions of the United States required a regular supply of bodies for medical study and experimentation. Physicians and medical students targeted the bodies of African Americans, both freedmen and the enslaved, to meet this demand. Simultaneously, the nation's booming newspaper market became a stage on which debates about the cruelty of slavery and the social consequences of pursuing medical knowledge played out in articles about the dissection of Black bodies. Such stories increased fears about dissection and mistrust towards the medical profession among African American communities, which manifested in riots against physicians, vandalism against medical schools, and corrective responses from African American newspaper editors and journalists. Through an extensive examination of nineteenth-century U.S. newspapers, this article identifies themes evident in the coverage of dissection during this period. Southern newspapers crafted stories of dissection that served the dual purpose of entertaining White readers and humiliating African Americans. This public humiliation fostered what became a popular genre of derogatory and vile humor that reinforced negative and inaccurate racialized stereotypes as well as racist science. Ultimately, such newspaper coverage provoked reactions within Black communities and among antislavery advocates that showcase how people often excluded from practicing medicine themselves viewed issues like medical education. Newspaper rhetoric around these themes amplified tensions between religious and scientific perspectives, reflected differences and similarities between the northern and southern areas of the United States, and fortified racist views in both cultural and scientific contexts.

Enseñanza de la Anatomía Humana en la Universidad Austral de Chile: Pasado, Presente y Futuro / Teaching of Human Anatomy at the Universidad Austral de Chile: Past, Present and Future

La presente revisión narrativa trata de caracterizar como ha sido el proceso de enseñanza de la anatomía en la Universidad Austral de Chile (UACh), presentando una visión histórica desde los inicios de la Universidad a los tiempos actuales y una reflexión sobre el futuro de la Anatomía Humana. Se describen los orígenes del Instituto de Anatomía de la UACh, primeros académicos, logros institucionales, convenios interinstitucionales; además, se detallan los métodos y estrategias educativas utilizadas en la actualidad para la enseñanza anatómica y se presenta una visión panorámica del porvenir como instituto de docencia e investigación en el campo de la Anatomía humana.

SUMMARY: This narrative review tries to characterize how the anatomy teaching process has been carried out at the Universidad Austral de Chile (UACh), presenting a historical vision from the beginnings of the University to the present time and a reflection on the future of Human Anatomy. The origins of the Human Anatomy Institute at the UACh, first academics, institutional achievements, inter-institutional agreements are described; in addition, the educational methods and strategies currently used for anatomical teaching are detailed and a panoramic vision of the future as a teaching and research institute in the field of human anatomy is presented.

[Etymology of the meninges names in the work «Onomatologia anatomica¼ by Josef Hyrtl]. / Etimologiya naimenovanii obolochek golovnogo mozga v trude Iozefa Girtlya «Onomatologia anatomica¼.

The article represents the translation of chapters of the scientific work «Onomatologia anatomica¼ (1880) by the Austrian anatomist Josef Hyrtl devoted to terminology in the anatomy of the meninges, namely arachnoidea, pia mater, dura mater, meninx.

Anatole-Felix Le Double (1848-1913): 110 years of his death.

Anatole-Félix Le Double was a prominent figure associated with the concept of anatomical variations also including the comprehension of their anthropological and zoological aspects. As an anatomist, Le Double contributed significantly with his major treatise regarding muscles and bony variants. Furthermore, Le Double influenced and popularized paleoanthropology and its relation to anatomy not only in France but in several parts of the world - promoting the idea that anatomical variations are not only surgically and clinically relevant but also have an evolutionary significance. To celebrate 110 years of his passing, this paper aims to explain his trajectory as a young physician to one of the most important figures in how anatomical variants are perceived today.

Substantive changes in the Latin anatomical nomenclature: Sometimes less is more.

Substantivation, the use of an adjective or participle as a noun, is commonly used informally to shorten Latin anatomical terms. Dozens of substantives also appear in the international standard anatomical terminology. Most of these are venerable and familiar as nouns in Latin anatomical terms. Examples of Latin nouns derived directly or indirectly from Greek and Latin adjectives and participles are presented here. Although neologisms are said to enrich languages, careful consideration is required before adding to a technical vocabulary. Terms consisting of a substantive or displaying a substantive as the head noun may be vague to learners and nonspecialists.

Fetal Development in Anatomical Preparations of Ruysch and the Meckels in Comparison.

Anatomical collections have been used for centuries for research and teaching purposes. By the example of selected preparations of fetal development from the Ruysch collection (17th-18th centuries) and the Meckel collections (18th-19th century), this article aims to trace the changing purposes, specifics and methods of creating specimens as well as the development of anatomy during that period. The selected specimens are compared and analyzed implementing the historical-critical method. Regarding the appearance of the preparations, we see a transition from the visually aesthetic specimens (Ruysch) to exact ones (Meckel collections). If Ruysch's preparations were compared in his time to works of art, specimens created by three anatomists of the Meckel dynasty were primarily created for teaching and research purposes. However, Ruysch's preparations tracing fetal circulation were scientific discoveries of the time. As for preparations of fetal development from the Meckel collections, we see both specimens of physiological processes already known at that time and experimental ones. Regarding teratology, Ruysch and Meckel the Younger tried to explain malformations, but their anatomical preparations could hardly give answers to the cause of deviations from the norm. The differences between the collections can be explained by the different stages of development of anatomy of the time and by the research interests of the anatomists themselves.

[Franciscus Silvius (1614-1672) and his contributions to neuroanatomy and clinical medicine]. / Frantsisk Sil'vii (1614­1672) i ego vklad v neiroanatomiyu i klinicheskuyu meditsinu.

The article is dedicated to the 350th anniversary of the death of the Dutch anatomist, physiologist, yatrochemist and the greatest physician of the XVII century, Franciscus Sylvius (Franz de le Boe) (1614-1672). His contribution to the study of the structure of the nervous system is characterized, as well as the main scientific discoveries and achievements in building a rational system of medical science and practice. It is stated that eponym «aquaeductus Sylvii¼ was coined by Lorenz Heister in 1717 in his paper «De admiranda cerebelli structura¼.

Beasts and Gods: Hippocampal quarrels before memory.

The first description and naming of the hippocampus is usually credited to Arantius (c. 1530 - 1589), whose comparison of the swelling inside the temporal horn of the lateral ventricle to a seahorse (hippocampus) or silkworm (bombyx) was published in the 1587 edition of the Anatomicarum Observationum Liber. However, in the 17th century, the term hippocampus was rarely used and its precise anatomy remained a mystery. The 18th century saw the hippocampus referred to as a wide range of animals and divinities. These terminological issues provoked heated discussions in the French Académie Royale des Sciences, culminating in the seminal description of the hippocampus in the 1780s by Félix Vicq d'Azyr (1748-1794). However, it is striking that no hypothesis concerning the function of the hippocampus was proposed, and its link with memory was not established until the mid-20th century.

History of nasopharyngeal study: A 5,000-year odyssey into our evolving understanding of a small but vital region.

The nasopharynx has been understudied relative to neighboring anatomical regions. It is a highly complex, integrated space whose function, development, and evolution remains unclear after nearly 5,000 years of study. Historically, most work on the nasopharynx was done with a focus on adjacent structures. It has most often been mentioned in relation to the middle ear (via the Eustachian tube) in ancient texts and has only later been given a designation as one of three portions of a tripartite pharynx among adult humans. As human dissection became practiced more widely in Renaissance Europe, understanding of the nasopharyngeal boundaries improved. With further advancements in the study of nasopharyngeal development, evolution, and anatomical variation from the 19th century up until the present, this region has been shown to be functionally vital and still complicated to define.

Innsbruck's histological institute in the third Reich: Specimens from NS-victims.

As elsewhere, the cadavers of Nazi victims were used at the 'Alpenunversität Innsbruck' for the education of medical students. They were also used by members of the Institute of Anatomy and the Institute of Histology for scientific research and publications. In 2018, over 300 drawers were discovered in a laboratory anteroom of the Innsbruck Histological Institute containing around 15,000 histological slides. After a closer examination, 237 slides were found to have human tissues from victims of the 3rd Reich possibly. These 237 slides were produced between May 1938 and March 1944. All 237 slides were digitized, the labels carefully analysed, and some of the victims were identified. Several specimens come from the tissues of three Nazi victims who were executed in Munich-Stadelheim and whose bodies were brought to the Innsbruck Anatomical Institute. From there, the organs were passed on to the Histological Institute Innsbruck. Inscriptions on other slides such as "Cl[ara]. 40", "hing[erichtet]. Clara" or "Hinger[ichtet]. Cl[ara]." prove that the specimens were most likely sent to the Institute by the histologist Max Clara. At this time, Clara was Director of the Leipzig Anatomical Institute and still had close ties to the Innsbruck Institute, where he had been trained. Based on several sources, some Nazi victims could be identified by name; biographical traces complement this identification. Under what political and sociological conditions future generations will look at the crimes of the Nazi dictatorship is not yet foreseeable. As anatomists and scientists, we must be cautious about removing evidence from this terrible time. Therefore, we will bury all slides where relatives wish to do so or where it is clear that Rabbi Polak's "Vienna Protocol" must be applied. However, the remaining slides will be kept safe for eventual further investigation.

Books, bones and bodies: The relevance of the history of anatomy in Nazi Germany for medical education today.

The history of anatomy in Nazi Germany highlights the consequences to humanity when the destructive potentials immanent to all science and medicine are enabled by an anti-democratic, totalitarian regime. Anatomy presents an example of ethical transgressions by scientists and health care professionals that were amplified in the criminal political climate of the Nazi regime. This can happen anywhere, as science is never apolitical. This article gives a short account of anatomy in Nazi Germany, which is followed by an outline of the tangible and intangible legacies from this history, to then discuss implications for anatomy education today. While Jewish and politically dissident anatomists were forced out of their positions and country by the Nazi regime, the majority of the remaining anatomists joined the Nazi party and used bodies of Nazi victims for education and research. Some anatomists even performed deadly human experiments. Patterns and legacies that emerge from this history can be traced into the present and concern research ethics in general and anatomical body procurement specifically. They shed light on current practices and controversies in the anatomical sciences, including anthropology. It will be argued here that the history of anatomy in Nazi Germany can inform current anatomy education in a concept of anatomy as the first "clinical discipline." By integrating insights from the history of anatomy into the learning process, anatomy education can model an approach to medicine that includes a full appreciation of the shared humanity of medical practitioners and patients.

[Etymology of terms in anatomy of central nervous system]. / Etimologiya terminov v anatomii tsentral'noi nervnoi sistemy.

We consider the origin of neuroanatomical terms and their formation as such in the history of medicine. Along with the terms originating from common Indo-European roots and reflecting the typical process of metaphorization of trivial objects and phenomena, in this sphere we find semantic calques (one of the types of borrowing) and formations originating from late Latin. The prevailing simple metaphor testifies to the early origin of most terminological units.

NOMENs land: The place of eponyms in the anatomy classroom.

The law of Non-Original Malappropriate Eponymous Nomenclature (NOMEN) states that no phenomenon is named after its discoverer. However, eponymous terms are rife in the anatomical and medical literature. In this viewpoint commentary, the authors discuss the history of anatomical eponyms, explain the additional cognitive load imposed by eponyms that can negatively impact student learning and explore the view that eponyms are "pale, male and stale" in the socially conscious 21st century. The authors probe two of the most common arguments used to keep eponyms in anatomy education: (1) clinicians use them because they are easy, and (2) eponyms remind us of anatomy's history. Educators, clinicians and students need to work together to progress this movement and bring a modern lens to this discussion. Based on the arguments presented in this commentary, the authors propose that eponyms should be removed from anatomy curricula, textbooks and have no place in the anatomy classroom.

"Inform the Head, Give Dexterity to the Hand, Familiarise the Heart": Seeing and Using Digitised Eighteenth-Century Specimens in a Modern Medical Curriculum.

Recent years have seen an explosion of interest in digitising museum collections. Among the objects of interest are anatomical and pathological specimens found in medical museums. As researchers increasingly produce digital replicas of these preparations, ways of integrating these resources into the medical curriculum must be explored. This article takes a medical humanities approach to this topical question, comparing the historic use of anatomical specimens to modern intentions, and exploring the potential for using digital anatomy to help integrate humanities into the curriculum. The use of anatomical specimens by William Hunter (1718-1783), whose collection is now kept at the Hunterian in the University of Glasgow, provides a key historic focus. The teaching intentions for his private courses of anatomy are examined, to investigate how specimens were used in an eighteenth-century "curriculum". The motivations behind digitisation and the use of digital anatomy in modern curriculums are then examined and compared. Many of these motivations are shared with Hunter's: the desire to maintain a unique anatomical resource, the need to provide multisensory engagement in learning, and a desire to attempt to show "natural" anatomy without the interference of human processes. The balance between fostering empathy and maintaining detachment is also key for both. Using digital replicas of historic specimens to teach anatomy also opens up a unique opportunity to educate students in the medical humanities in a fully integrated way. Understanding the full story of the specimens they use, as explored in the first half of the article, allows students to place themselves, their dissection subjects, and healthcare as a whole in a historical context. As well as fostering empathy in the dissection lab, the stories behind the specimens can be used to introduce key humanities topics, including ethics, institutional bias, and social aspects of health and disease. It is essential that this potential is explored now while digital anatomy is still a relatively young field, and therefore collaborations between anatomists and medical humanities practitioners can be built and included from the ground up.

The Medical University of Vienna and the legacy of Pernkopf's anatomical atlas: Elsevier's donation of the original drawings to the Josephinum.

Eduard Pernkopf (1888-1955) became head of the Second Anatomical Institute in 1933, dean of the medical faculty in 1938 with the Annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany, and rector of the University of Vienna in 1943. He gained worldwide recognition with his anatomical atlas, which many consider unequaled to this day. In the decades that followed, suspicion arose that the drawings were made using corpses of people who had been victims of Nazi persecution and, following international inquiries and critique, the University of Vienna appointed a historical commission to the matter. The commission published its results in 1998, concluding that anatomical specimens used for the illustrations in Pernkopf's atlas had in all likelihood been made using corpses of victims of the Nazi judicial system. In total, the Anatomical Institute received the corpses of at least 1377 executed people, including many members of the anti-Nazi resistance. Through the acquisition of Pernkopf's original publisher Urban & Schwarzenberg in 2003, the original drawings and the publishing rights went to Elsevier. While existing copies of Pernkopf's Anatomy remain in use, printing or licensing of the atlas or its illustrations were stopped in 1994, inducing an effective ban on publishing the illustrations in other contexts, for example in works dealing with history and ethics of anatomy. In December 2019, Elsevier donated the remaining original drawings and proofs to the Medical University of Vienna, ensuring that these returned to the institution where they originated. They are now part of the university's historical collections held at the Josephinum. Moreover, the transfer of the originals to Vienna ensures appropriate archiving and conservation, cataloging and digitization, as well as access to the illustrations for historical and related research.

Body procurement in the Dr. Senckenbergische Anatomie in Frankfurt/Main after the Second World War - From unclaimed corpses to body bequests.

The present paper provides a detailed historical and numerical analysis of the processes regarding body procurement in a particular German anatomical institute, namely, the Dr. Senckenbergische Anatomie (DSA) in Frankfurt am Main. It covers the period from 1946 to 1980; i.e. the transitional phase during which unclaimed corpses were replaced by corpses stemming from body donors. The DSA is fortunate to possess the complete set of records spanning that period. Thus, we cannot only document the (failed) organizational and political efforts of the local anatomists and governmental agencies to uphold the unclaimed body system of old, but we can also present rather detailed data regarding the genesis of the system of body donations. In particular, we will provide evidence that this system was more or less self-generating, and that its emergence was not actively propagated by the local anatomists. Instead, it was triggered by both the media and by the donors themselves, with the latter acting as multipliers. In addition we provide, for the first time, data on the efficacy (in terms of "file corpses" vs. real corpses in anatomy) of a body donation system in Germany.

Primeras disecciones anatómicas con fines docentes en Chile / First anatomical dissections for teaching purposes in Chile

RESUMEN: En Chile, los primeros antecedentes de la enseñanza de la anatomía aparecen en el siglo XVI, para proveer conocimientos a los profesionales sanitarios que ejercían en el territorio. En 1704, el Papa Sixto IV permite la práctica de la disección, encabezada por el alcalde de la ciudad y en donde se invitaba a médicos y cirujanos. Posteriormente, la enseñanza exclusivamente teórica de la medicina en la Universidad Real de San Felipe estimuló a los profesores a enseñarla clínica y la anatomía en forma práctica para complementar las clases expositivas. La Independencia de Chile, determinó que las carreras universitarias sufrieran cambios curriculares importantes, aunque en medicina y anatomía, su desarrollo fue lento y tortuoso. El objetivo de este trabajo fue describir las prácticas de la disección anatómica en la formación de médicos en Chile durante el periodo comprendido entre los años 1704y 1889. Se realizó una revisión bibliográfica en libros de historia de Chile, de historia de la medicina chilena y artículos científicos relacionados al tema, esto nos permitió describir los inicios, desarrollo y características de la práctica de la disección utilizada en la formación de médicos en el periodo en cuestión. El análisis de los resultados nos permitió identificar 5 etapas distintas entre sí, fuertemente influidas por su contexto histórico y diferenciadas por el enfoque que les infundieron los profesores de cada una de estas etapas, que definieron una bibliografía, una orientación y una práctica de la disección en función de las formaciones académicas de cada uno de ellos. Este trabajo, permitió ordenar y exponer información valiosa para la historia de la medicina en Chile, y muy importante, comprender las prácticas educativas que se llevaron a cabo en la formación de estos profesionales que tuvieron un rol preponderante en el proceso de establecimiento de la naciente nación.

SUMMARY: In Chile, the first teachings of anatomy were carried out in the XVI century, to develop the knowledge of health profesionals practicing in the country. In 1704, Pope Sixtus IV allowed the practice of dissection, led by city's mayor of the city and where doctors and surgeons were invited. Subsequently, the exclusively theoretical teaching of medicine at the Real Universidad de San Felipe encouraged teachers to teach anatomy in clinical and practical ways to complement the lectures. Independence of Chile, found that university careers suffer major curricular changes, although in medicine and anatomy, development was slow and tortuous. The aim of this study was to describe the practice of anatomical dissection in training doctors in Chile during the period between 1700 and 1889. A literature review was conducted in scientific articles related to the subject and books on the history of Chile and the history of Chilean medicine. This allowed us to describe the beginnings, development and characteristics of the dissection practice used in the training of physicians in the period in question. The analysis of the results allowed us to identify 5 different stages, strongly influenced by their historical context and differentiated by the approach used by the teachers of each of these stages, who defined a bibliography, an orientation and a dissection practice. In turn, the focus of each teacher was based on the academic training of each of them. This work allowed ordering and exposing valuable information for the history of medicine in Chile, as well as understanding the educational practices that were carried out in the training of these professionals who had a critical role in the process of this developing nation.

[Contribution of Thomas Willis (1621-1675) to neuroanatomy and clinical neurology (on the 400th anniversary of his birth)]. / Vklad Tomasa Uillisa (1621­1675) v neiroanatomiyu i klinicheskuyu nevrologiyu (k 400-letiyu so dnya rozhdeniya).

The article is devoted to the 400th anniversary of the birth of the famous English physician and anatomist Thomas Willis (Willisius), who made an invaluable contribution to the development of neurological science and practice. The authors briefly describe the stages of his life path and characterize his contribution to neuroanatomy and clinical medicine, in particular neurology.

Regular anatomical terms revisited: The simplest is often the right one.

Regular anatomical (RA) terminology rules were developed to simplify and clarify Latin anatomical terms in a systematic manner. These rules, which prohibit conjunctions, prepositions, and appositions, and define a consistent word order pattern, are extensions of the original 1895 rule of anatomical nomenclature that anatomical terms should be as short and simple as possible. It is not coincidental that most terms in Terminologia Anatomica (TA), and many traditional terms that were not used in TA, are consistent with RA term rules, and that the RA term rules are also consistent with the guidelines for expanding short form terms to full, unique terms. The consistent form of RA terms facilitates learning and translation, and is easier for humans and machines to manipulate than terms that are not compliant with RA term rules. Despite assertions to the contrary, RA terms are proper Latin terms that simplify the anatomical terminology and, in many cases, restore traditional terms.

What's in a synonym? A nose by any other name would smell.

INTRODUCTION: Communication in the biomedical sciences and clinical practice would be clearer if everyone used the same set of technical terms. Technical vocabularies, such as international standard terminologies, are attempts to avoid common linguistic problems, such as synonymy (many names for a single entity) and polysemy (many meanings for a single term). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Efforts made in human anatomical nomenclature since the late 19th century to deal with these issues were reviewed. RESULTS: The new designations official term, equivalent term, synonym and related term are defined, and current challenges (e.g., eponyms) are identified. DISCUSSION: The addition of synonyms and related terms to the international standard anatomical terminology allows indexing of these terms to the official terms and evaluation of the relationships between terms.